EDUC 101.4: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION - Notes

• Benefits of Teaching
• Rewards of working with young people & helping others
  
• Competitive salaries
• Fringe benefits
  

• Challenges of Teaching
• Workload exceeds length of workday 
• High-stakes testing and increased accountability
• No Child Left Behind
• Blueprint for Reform (Note: not yet passed even though the text says otherwise)
• Schools that have not kept pace with changing technology
• Expectations of Teachers
• Subjected to a high degree of public scrutiny
• Highly proficient
  
• Believe in the potential of all children
• Maintain high professional standards
• Job Outlook
• High-demand fields
• science
• mathematics
• bilingual education
• special education
• less desirable urban or rural school districts
• Tenure -- "job security granted to teachers after satisfactory performance for a specified period, usually two to five years"
• Demand for teachers of color
• Demand for teachers with disabilities
• Increasing enrollments in West and South, little change in Midwest, declining enrollment in Northeast
• Highly Qualified Teachers
• a bachelor's degree
• full state certification
• knowledge of each subject they teach
• Professional Standards
• InTASC Standards (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium)
  
1. Learning Development
2. Learning Differences
3. Learning Environments
4. Content Knowledge
5. Innovative Application of Content
6. Assessment
7. Planning for Instruction
8. Instructional Strategies
9. Reflection and Continuous Growth
10. Collaboration
    
• CAEP (The Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation) -- consolidation of
• NCATE Standards (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
• TEAC (Teacher Education Accreditation Council)
• Certification and Licensure
• Teaching certificate -- a license to teach
• Praxis I
• reading, writing, and mathematics
• for all teachers
• Praxis II
• knowledge of the subject you will teach
• Praxis III
• performance-based assessment system
• usually completed during the first year teaching
• National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification's Interstate Agreement -- "reciprocity agreement whereby a certificate obtained in one state will be honored in another"
• Alternative certification -- for individuals with bachelor's degrees
  

• the achievement of academic goals
  
• academic knowledge and skills needed for schooling beyond high school or for the world of work
• philosophical, political, religious, and cultural beliefs and ideologies aside, people believe that schools should teach academic content; however, disagreement exists regarding the overall purpose for learning academic content.
• primary purpose of learning: personal growth and development of students
• success for the global economy (government, policymakers, etc. belief of schools role)

• primary purpose of which schools should teach: honesty, patriotism, fairness and civility
• according to "No child left behind" called for teaching the following values: caring, civic virtue and citizenship, justice and fairness, respect, responsibility, trustworthiness, and giving.
• the technology in action feature for this chapter explains how teachers can use video editing to teach students the importance of study skills and social responsibility.

Schools and Socialization of the Young

• through their experiences in schools, children and youth become socialized- they learn to participate responsibly in our nation's society.
• goal of socializing students is evident in countless local schools whose mission statement focus on preparing students for responsible citizenship, citizenship, further learning, and productive employment in our nation's economy.
• in effect, schools reflect or mirror society
• reproduce the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that society had identified as essential.
• education->producing enlightened citizens
• the need for the nation to socialize its children and youth was recognized by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) who is the great french sociologist and philosopher.
• schools assimilate: different ethnic, racial, religious, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds and pass on the values and customs of the majority.
• For example:
• 1 in every 5 students today speaks a language other than English at home, and nearly 1/4 of these students have difficulty speaking English.
  
• Through the schools, children and youth from such diverse backgrounds learn English and learn about the importance of US holidays.

Schools and Social Change

• Schools provide students with the knowledge and skills to improve society and adapt to rapid social change. (which some don't really disagree with necessarily)
  
• Less controversial have been service-learning activities that prepare students to serve others through volunteerism and to participate actively in the political life of the nation.
  
• during the 1990s, some high schools began to require that every student complete a service requirement- to help them understand that they can be apart of a big community to which they are accountable
• Service learning- provides students with the opportunity to deliver service to the communities while engaging in reflection and study on the meaning of those experiences/
• they have contact with elderly, the sick, the poor, the homeless, and it acquaints them with the neighborhood and govt' issues.

Focus on Diversity: Schools and Equal Educational Opportunity

• Ample evidence exists that certain groups in US society are denied equality of equal opportunity economically, socially, and educationally.
  
• example: experiences helping less advantaged backgrounds- headstart (children from less fortunate families are not likely to go into this particular program)
• example: latino children are less likely to be enrolled than white or african american children.
• The US has always derived strength from the diversity of its people and all students should receive a quality education so that they may make their unique contributions to society.
• Schools must support all students, including by providing appropriate instruction and access to a challenging curriculum along with additional supports and attention where needed.
• from English learners and students with disabilities to Native American students, homeless students, migrant students, rural students, and neglected or delinquent students, (we must) support and strengthen programs for these students and ensure that schools are helping meet college- and career-ready standards.
• it has given students a fair chance to succeed

How can schools be described?

• they can be characterized according to their focus of their curricula; for example, high schools may be college prep, vocational, or general.
• another way to view a school is by their organizational structure, for example, alternative schools, charter schools, or magnet schools.

Metaphors for Schools

• Some schools have been compared to factories; students enter the school as raw material, move through the curriculum in a systematic way, and exit school as a finished product.
• in the school-as- family metaphor, for example, the effective school is a caring community of adults who attend to the academic, emotional, and social needs of the children and you entrusted to their care.
  
• people who help more deeply within the school get a better connection with the particular school, for example a teacher who is a coach or ahead of a club would be a better advocate for children learning.

Focus on Diversity: Schools and Social Class

• in spite of a general consensus that schools should promote social change and equal opportunity, some individuals believe that schools "reproduce" the existing society by presenting different curricula and educational experiences to students from different socioeconomic classes.
• depending on funding things in the class room may not be accomplished like richer areas school's
• children in good areas or rich areas, children from those particular areas can afford "high end" schooling so they can go to the best colleges and with that they can increase the family's social class status
• children from lower-income families tend to develop "restricted" language patterns with their use of English, while people from affluent backgrounds have a more "elaborated" language pattern.
• **It is important for teachers to understand the different types of knowledge students bring with them into the classroom and how this knowledge can conflict with the norms and values of schools and teachers.

Four Types of Schools

• Working-class school:
  
• The primary emphasis is on having students follow directions as they work at rote, mechanical activities such as completing mimeographed worksheet.
• students are given little to no opportunity to exercise their initiative or to make choices.
  
• the teachers may make negative comments about students' abilities- they may convey low expectations.
• teachers may spend much of their time focusing on classroom management with absenteeism, and keeping extensive records.
  
•  Middle-class school:
• teachers emphasize on students getting the right answers, usually in form of words, sentences,numbers, or facts and dates.
• students have slightly more opportunity to make decisions, but not much.
• Most lessons are text book based.
• Affluent professional school:
• students have the opportunity to express their individuality and to make a variety of choices
• fewer rules govern the behavior of students, teachers and students are likely to negotiate about the work the student does.
• Executive elite school:
• work is developing ones analytical intellectual powers
• children are continually asked to reason through a problem, to produce intellectual products that are both logically sound and of top academic quality.
• For affluent and executive school- have a more positive relationship with teacher

The school as a reflection of society

• schools mirror the national culture and the surrounding local culture and other special interests. schools are different from the particular culture of the town or area.

Rural School Settings

• are often the focal point for community life and reflect values and beliefs that tend to be more conservative than those associated with urban or suburban schools.
• the schools are small, which may contribute to the family- like culture, its small size may make it difficult to provide students with an array of curricular experiences equal to larger schools.
• large suburban or urban schools- provide students with more learning experiences, but these schools may lack the cohesiveness and community focus.

Urban and Suburban Settings

• the differences among the environments that surround schools can be enormous
• urban schools found in or near decaying centers of large cities often reflect the social problems of the surrounding area, such as drug abuse, crime and poverty.
• one of the most serious problems confronting education in the US is the quality of such schools.
• in cities like chicago, NYC, etc- middle class families who can afford to do so move away from urban centers or place children in private schools.

Focus on Diversity: Overcoming the Effects of Poverty

• although the extreme poverty found in some communities may affect their schools in undesirable ways, effective teachers at such schools communicate to students that they are "rich" in ways that go beyond material wealth.
• teachers in these particular poverty areas may either effect the students in a great way- which will effect them for life, or the teacher may just teach and not impact any of the students lives- which in effect could end their schooling! children look up to teachers.

The culture of the School

• although some schools are very much alike, each school is unique. Each has a culture of its own- a network or beliefs, values and traditions, and ways of thinking and behaving that distinguishes it from other schools.
• school cultures: include climate, ethos, atmosphere, and character.
• "toxic" school system- may not be meeting the needs of their children, parents may believe.

The Physical Environment

• the physical environment of the school both reflects and helps to create the school's overall culture
• some schools are dreary places or, at best, aesthetically bland. The tile floors; concrete block walls; long, straight corridors; and rows of fluorescent lights often found in these schools to contribute little to their inhabitants' sense of beauty, concern of others, or personal comfort.
• other schools are much more attractive; clean, pleasant, and inviting, and teachers and students take pride in their building.
• overall the physical environment has a positive impact on those who spend time in the school; it encourages learning and a spirit of cohesiveness.

Formal Practices of Schools

• self-contained classroom: is the most traditional and prevalent arrangement in elementary through secondary schools. In open-spaced schools,however, students are free to move among various activities and learning centers.
• open spaced schools: have large instructional areas with moveable walls and boards, that can be arranged easily. students do their work independently, with the guidance of several teachers.
• departmentalization: when a teacher teaches a particular subject of expertise.

School Traditions

• schools traditions: are those elements of a school's culture that are handed down from year to year.
• may be the way they teach particular things or they have an expertise in a particular subject
• traditions are the glue that holds together the diverse elements of a schools culture

The Culture of the Classroom

• is determined in large measure by the manner in which teacher and students participate in common activities.
• the quality of teacher-student interactions is influenced by the physical characteristics of the setting and the social dimensions of the group.
• students believe that effective teachers develop positive, task-oriented classroom cultures, while ineffective teachers develop negative cultures.

What are the characteristics of successful schools?

Measures of Success

• what the student is learning in classes
• achievement in results expected by comparable schools
• successful in improvement, rather than getting worse

Research on School Effectiveness and School Improvement

• strong leadership
• High expectations
• emphasis on basic skills
• orderly school environment
• frequent, systematic evaluation of student learning
• sense of purpose
• collegiality and sense of community

• School improvement research- teachers must play a significant role in providing leadership for the improvement process.

What social problems affect schools and place students at risk?

• a complex and varied array of social issues affect students.
• they often detract from the ability of schools to educate students

Identifying Student at Risk

• an increasing number of young people live under conditions characterized by extreme stress, chronic poverty, crime, and lack of adult guidance. 
• people may be effected from these things in different ways depending on the conditions they live in.

Focus on Diversity: America's Dropout Problem

• Adverse childhood experience, whether witnessing or experiencing physical or emotional abuse and/or losing a parent to drugs, jail, or death
  
• poverty
• emotional and behavioral disorders, including depression, anxiety disorder, disruptive behavior disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder
• learning disabilities
• substance abuse
• institutionally driven mobility
• poor mental and physical health care
• exposure to antisocial peers
• poor family- school relationships

• students at risk- need teachers who can recognize opportunities in the classroom to build up their confidence as learners

Violence and Crime

• immediate warning signs from previous shootings-immediate warning signs
  
• loss of temper on a daily basis
• frequent physical fighting
  
• significant vandalism or property damage
• increase in the use of drugs or alcohol
• increase in risk-taking behavior
• detailed plan to commit acts of violence
• announcing threats of plans for hurting others
• enjoying hurting animals
• carrying a weapon
• potential for violence over a period of time
• history of violent aggressive behavior
• serious drug or alcohol use
• gang membership
• threatening others regularly
• feeling rejected or alone
• victim of bullying
• poor school performance
• feeling constantly disrespected

How are schools addressing societal problems?

• Peer counseling
• Focus on Diversity: Peer mediation to promote tolerance
• Full-service community schools
• School based case management
• compensatory education
• alternative schools and curricula
• OST- out of school time activities
• alternative curricula
• expanded learning schools (elt)

How can community based partnership help students learn?

• the community as a resource for schools
• civic organizations
• volunteer mentor programs
• corporate-education partnerships
• 21st century community learning centers (cclcs)
• schools as resources for communities
• beyond the school day
• school services
  

• A philosophy of education describes how you think students learn best including both the role of the student and of the teacher.
  
• 5 Modern Philosophical orientations towards education

1. Essentialism- essential knowledge, "back to basics", "what you need to know."
2. Existentialism- meeting true potential, "why are you here", role to help students discover their purpose
3. Perennialism- things have same value, important information is still used today; example: Shakespeare
   
4. Progressivism- "actively" engaging with environment; example: changing a tire physically
5. Social Reconstruction- interaction, makes society better, child makes a decision that results in a better society; example: eliminate poverty, problem solving, social skills, etc.

Teacher Centered- essentialism and perennialism

In between- Progressivism

Student Centered (let the child decide)- social reconstruction and existentialism

Effective Feedback

• Timely
• Focuses on strength
• Suggestions for next step: effort-> progress
• Focuses on work and work progress
• Description not judgmental
• Positive, Clear, Specific
  

History of Education

Who, what did each person contribute to education

• Jane Addams-
• remembered primarily as a founder of the Settlement House Movement
• She and her friend Ellen Starr founded Hull House in the slums of Chicago in 1889. She is also remembered as the first American Woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize.
• portrayed as the selfless giver of ministrations to the poor, but few realize that she was a mover and shaker in the areas of labor reform (laws that governed working conditions for children and women), and was a charter member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). 
• In 1889, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr opened the Hull-House, which was named after the building’s original owner. The house provided services for the immigrant and poor population living in the neighborhood. Over the years, it grew to include more than 10 buildings and extended its services to include child care, educational courses, an art gallery, a public kitchen, and many other social programs.
• In addition to her work at the Hull-House, Jane Addams served the first female president of the National Conference of Social Work in 1910. She went on to establish the National Federation of Settlements the next year and held that organization’s top post for more than two decades.
• She is remembered as a pioneer in the field of social work and as one of the nation’s leading pacifists.
• John Dewey-
• philosopher
• education theories broke new ground and continue to wield influence at the dawn of the twenty-first century.
• drill-and-recitation methods of the nineteenth century, school and society (1899) espoused the notion that ideas should be grounded by experience.
• experience and education (1938), argued that education should be based on child's psychological and physical development, as well as the world outside the schoolroom
• industrial and urban growth made his theories prominent in his lifetime, and the recurring notions of child-centered learning formed the basis of progressive education, enjoying continued popularity today.
  
• W.E.B. Debois-
• received a BA from Bisque University, first African American to receive a PHD 
• philadelphia negre-first case study for the black community in the united states, pointing out racism making people poor, poverty, etc.
• published souls of black folk-(1903) poetry, autobiographical sketches, historical articles, a wide range of black diversity in the United States
• 1905 Niagra Movement- NAACP 
• published a novel- quest of the silver fleece
  
• then published the negro- black africans
  
• darkwater: voices from within the veil (autobiography)
  
• black reconstruction of america (autobiography)
• communist party- ghana
• most profound intelectual of his generation, now is influenced today for his scholars
  
• Friedrich Froebel-
• german educationalist
• "kindergarten system"
  
• The purpose of education is to encourage and guide man as a conscious, thinking and perceiving being in such a way that he becomes a pure and perfect representation of that divine inner law through his own personal choice; education must show him the ways and meanings of attaining that goal.
• He came into teaching via a school run along Pestalozzian lines (and spent time at Yverdon). Friedrich Froebel's enduring significance was through his formulation of the 'kindergarten system' with its emphasis on play and its use of 'gifts' (play materials) and 'occupations (activities).
• Friedrich Froebel believed that humans are essentially productive and creative - and fulfilment comes through developing these in harmony with God and the world.
• As a result, Froebel sought to encourage the creation of educational environments that involved practical work and the direct use of materials. Through engaging with the world, understanding unfolds. Hence the significance of play - it is both a creative activity and through it children become aware of their place in the world.
• As a result, Froebel sought to encourage the creation of educational environments that involved practical work and the direct use of materials. Through engaging with the world, understanding unfolds. Hence the significance of play - it is both a creative activity and through it children become aware of their place in the world.
• Friedrich Froebel's continuing relevance has lain in his concern for learning through activity, his interest in social learning and his emphasis on the 'unification 'of life.
• E.D. Hirsch-
• founder and chairman of board of the core knowledge foundation
• leading voice in what can best be described as the "back to basics" movement
• best known for his 1980s best seller Cultural Literacy- What every American Needs to know
• core knowledge foundation- provides curriculum to schools and conducts research and workshops for teachers; operate in forty-six states nationwide
• theories have been challenged by other educators on pedagogical and social grounds
• John Holt-
  
• In his early days of teaching, John Holt tried to reform the educational system. He wanted kids to learn deeply rather than memorize easily-forgotten facts. He wanted kids to be engaged with their education rather than following the teacher as mindless drones.
• Discouraged with the lack of response from fellow teachers, Holt decided that pushing for reform wasn’t going result in the large-scale changes schools so desperately needed:
• “Children do poorly in school because they’re bored with the meaningless work . . . scared of being punished or humiliated . . . and confused by the fact that most teaching progresses from abstract concepts to concrete examples instead of-as would be more sensible the other way around. In essence I’d realized, from observing and teaching, that school is a place where children learn to be stupid!”
• John Holt also pointed out that the rewards given for academic merit and good behavior often turned students off to learning altogether. He believed that people should learn because they want to, not be trained to receive a “carrot” for their work. Stickers and stars create an illogical motivation system which ultimately harms learners. Holt said:
• “It’s a well established principle that if you take somebody who’s doing something for her or his own pleasure and offer some kind of outside reward for doing it-and let the person become accustomed to performing the task for that reward-then take the reward away, the individual will stop that activity. You can even train nursery school youngsters who love to draw pictures to stop drawing them, simply by giving them gold stars or some other little bonus for a couple of months . . . and then removing that artificial “motivation”.
• As a homeschooling advocate, John Holt encouraged parents to avoid re-creating traditional schools around their kitchen tables. Instead, he urged them to let the “students” lead the learning and help them find legitimate, real-life experiences.
• Although he advocated for learner-directed education, John Holt’s message wasn’t about idealizing childhood or encouraging people to take the easy way out. He explained:
• “Maybe I’m kind of old-fashioned, but I don’t think the currently popular ‘therapeutic’ methods-which involve telling someone, ‘You’re OK, you’re really wonderful’ -do much good. Tackling a job that seems worth doing, and doing it in a competent manner, is-to my way of thinking-the best way for a person to gain self-esteem.”
• Today’s homeschooling families can thank John Holt for his tireless efforts in giving the movement legitimacy. Many homeschool and unschool parents continue to rely on Holt’s publications when developing their own educational philosophies
• Although traditional educators tend to view Holt’s writings as too radical, some of his ideas have made their way into mainstream thought. His beliefs on extrinsic motivation systems, for example, were recently echoed in the popular book Punished by Rewards.
• Many adults now turn to Holt’s books while seeking to understand their own educational experiences and become better learners.
• John Hughes-
• first archbishop or new york
• demanded public funds for catholic schools
• unsuccessful in obtaining taxpayer dollars for religious schools, but his struggles and the fiery debates between hughes and members of new yorks prominent protestant establishment

• little rock nine
• September 25, 1957, became a historic day in the Nation when nine courageous children risked their lives to attend Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Confronted by a hostile crowd and escorted by the Screaming Eagles of the 101st Airborne, they shouldered the burden of integrating a then segregated public school system.   Although the Supreme Court's Landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education struck down racial segregation in public schools, it was the courageous actions of these nine young champions of school integration that tested the strength of that decision.  Their actions not only mobilized a Nation to insure that access to a quality education was granted to all Americans, but they helped to define the civil rights movement.  They became known as the Little Rock Nine

• Mary Lyon-
• She attended school until she was 13, and got her first job as a teacher while still in her teens. Mary Lyon taught and managed schools in Massachusetts and New Hampshire before establishing Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1837, the first college for women.
• She worked hard to create a place that would provide women with the opportunity to obtain a higher education. Despite the fact that the country was in a time of financial crisis, Lyon was able to raise enough funds for her new school. In 1837, the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary opened in South Hadley, Massachusetts, with 80 students. Lyon’s—and the school’s—reputation grew with its alumni went out into the world taking with them the educational philosophies and teaching methods learned at Mount Holyoke.
• Her work is still being carried on by the students and faculty of her school, which now has more than 2,000 students enrolled.
• Horace Mann-
• improved the dire shape of public schools in early 19th century in Massachusetts.
• Throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, public school students attended classes for only a few weeks each winter, often in poorly equipped schoolhouses with untrained teachers.
• Using his position in government and his experience as a social reformer, Mann established the state board of education and departed from the senate to serve as the board’s first secretary. Seeing public school as a way to improve and equalize educational opportunity, Mann comprehensively surveyed the condition of the state’s schools, established training institutes for teachers, increased the length of the school year to six months, and gathered support for more funding for teacher salaries, books and school construction.
• Some historians believe that Mann and other reformers were alarmed by the upheaval, and promoted state regulated public education as a way to bring order and discipline to the working class in this rapidly changing society
• public education
  
• Maria Montessori-
• was born August 31, 1870 in Chariavalle, Italy. Montessori's was educated as a doctor, but went on to start her own preschool. She believed children should not be treated as receptors of knowledge from the teacher, but instead should be leaders of their own learning. Her philosophy has been embraced in schools around the world.
• Rudolph Steiner-
• was an innovative academic born in austria whose ideas founded the bases of Anthropology
• The first Steiner school opened in Stuttgart in 1919 for children of workers at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory. The school's benefactor was managing director, Emil Molt, who asked Dr Rudolf Steiner to found and lead the school in its early stages.
• Works for all children irrespective of academic ability, class, ethnicity or religion;
• Takes account of the needs of the whole child – academic, physical, emotional and spiritual;
• Is based on an understanding of the relevance of the different phases of child development;
• Develops a love of learning and an enthusiasm for school;
• Sees artistic activity and the development of the imagination as integral to learning;
• Is tried and tested and is part of state funded, mainstream provision in most European countries;
• Is respected worldwide for its ability to produce very able young people who have a strong sense of self and diverse capacities that enable them to become socially and economically responsible citizens.
• 
  
• Booker T. Washington-
• to become the founder and first head of the Tuskegee Institute and a leading advocate for the educational and economic improvement of African Americans.
• His popular lectures espoused the values of hard work, persistence and self-discipline — values he embodied and for which he is remembered.
  
  

Court Cases

1. Kalamazoo Case: citizens of Kalamazoo, Mich., challenged (1872) collection of taxes for support of a public high school; the Michigan Supreme Court decided (1874) state had right to levy taxes for support of complete system of public education, including high schools and universities; case set a precedent for other states.

2. Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and its legal offspring, the Legal Defense and Educational Fund, developed a systematic attack against the doctrine of "separate but equal." The campaign started at the graduate and professional educational levels. The attack culminated in five separate case gathered together under the name of one of them-Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Aware of the gravity of the issue and concerned with the possible political and social repercussions, the U.S. Supreme Court heard the case argued on three separate occasions in as many years. The Court weighed carefully considerations involving adherence to legal precedent, social-science findings on the negative effects of segregation, and the marked inferiority of the schools that African Americans were forced to attend. The Supreme Court announced its unanimous decision on May 17, 1954. It held that school segregation violated the Equal Protection and Due Process clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. The following year the Court ordered desegregation "with all deliberate speed."

3. Education for All Handicapped Children Act: In 1975, Congress passed Public Law 94-142 (Education of All Handicapped Children Act), now codified as IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). In order to receive federal funds, states must develop and implement policies that assure a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to all children with disabilities

4. Elementary and Secondary Education Act: was passed in 1965 as a part of the "War on Poverty." ESEA emphasizes equal access to education and establishes high standards and accountability. The law authorizes federally funded education programs that are administered by the states. In 2002, Congress amended ESEA and reauthorized it as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).

5. Morrill Land-Grant Act: the Morrill Act provided each state with 30,000 acres of Federal land for each member in their Congressional delegation. The land was then sold by the states and the proceeds used to fund public colleges that focused on agriculture and the mechanical arts. Sixty-nine colleges were funded by these land grants, including Cornell University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Wisconsin at Madison.

6. National Defense Education Act: (NDEA), federal legislation passed in 1958 providing aid to education in the  United States at all levels, public and private. NDEA was instituted primarily  to stimulate the advancement of education in science, mathematics, and modern  foreign languages. The act provides institutions of higher education with 90% of capital funds for  low-interest loans to students. NDEA also gives federal support for improvement  and change in elementary and secondary education. The act contains statutory  prohibitions of federal direction, supervision, or control over the curriculum,  program of instruction, administration, or personnel of any educational  institution.

7. Scopes Monkey Trial: began July 10, 1925 in Dayton, Tennessee, when high school biology teacher John T. Scopes (1900-70), faced court proceedings on the charge  of having taught evolution in violation of the Butler Act.  Although Scopes technically lost the case, many perceive it as a victory for evolutionists  and rationalism.

8. Title IX Education Amendment:

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 protects people from discrimination based on sex in education programs or activities which receive Federal financial assistance. Title IX states that:

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

• Jane Addams- Co-founder of Hull House in Chicago, which became a very large influence in the area. Hull House held kindergarten classes as well as adult night classes. Ms. Addams was also appointed to the Chicago Board of Ed. and later became the chairman of the School Management committee.
• John Dewey- Considered the most influential person in the history of modern education. He believed that the "Old school" method of teaching was to rigid and that children learn best not from what the teacher's subject matter is but from each other in social day-to-day activities. As well Dewey believed that students made to listen heard  absolutely nothing, but if the child was allowed to experiment with his education and was simply guided by the teacher then he learned and listened far more.
• W.E.B Dubious-was an African American social activist who believed that people were wrong if they didn't believe that African Americans should receive the same education as whites.  

• Assimilation of Native Americans- The process to fade out Native American culture and involve them in "proper" education.
  
• Child Labor- The indentured servitude of Children through the early twentieth century. National Consumer's League and the National Child Labor Committee were formed to prevent future child labor issues.
• Coleman Report (Equality of Educational Opportunity) - A study commissioned by the US government to assess the availability of Equal Education Opportunities for children of different race, color, religion,etc.
• Freedman's Schools- Schools established by Union troops during and after the Civil War for freed African-Americans  to receive a proper education since in the South most colored people did not receive an education.
• Headstart- The organization started to help improve the school-readiness of children from low income level families.
• Homeschooling Movement- A movement to keep children at home and teach them a different curriculum than that of public schools. Homeschooling is legal in most countries and is trusted more than public schools. However homeschooling used to be illegal and was highly frowned upon.       
  

• NEA/AFT - The National Education Association is the teachers union.

•  A Nation at Risk- The title of the report written by Ronald Reagan to the National commission on excellence in Education.
  

Why is philosophy important to teachers?  Knowledge of educational philosophy enables teachers to understand the complex political forces that influence schools, to evaluate more effectively current proposals for change, and to grow professionally.  Professional teachers teachers continually strive for a clearer, more comprehensive answer to basic philisophical questions.  Most schools have a statement of philosophy that describes educational values and goals.

What determines your educational philosophy?  an educational philosophy is a set of beliefs about education, a set of principles to guide professional action.  a teachers educational philosophy is made up of personal beliefs about teaching and learning, students knowledge, and what is worth knowing.

Branches of Philosophy:
Metaphysics- concerned with explaining, as rationally and comprehensively as possible, the nature of reality (what is reality?)
Epistemology- these questions all focus on knowledge (what knowledge is true? how does knowing take place? how do we know what we know?)
            -knowing based on authority, knowing based on divine revelation (knowledge in the form of supernatural revelations), knowing based on empiricism/experience (know. acquired by the senses), knowing based on reason and logical analysis (thinking logically), knowing based on intuition (w/o the use of rational thought)
Axiology- highlights the fact that the teacher has an interest not only in the quantity of knowledge that students learn, but also in the quality of life that becomes possible because of that knowledge. 
Ethics- what is good and evil, right and wrong, just and unjust?
Aesthetics- concerned with values related to beauty and art
Logic- processes of reasoning and identifies rules that will enable the thinker to reach valis conclusions. (Socratic questioning: the discussion leader only asks questions, the discussion is systematic, the leader's questions direct the discussion, everyone participates in an effort to "go beneath the surface" and to explore the complexities of the topic or issue under discussion.)

What psycological orientations have influenced teaching philosophies?
Humanism: Children are innately good, and education should focus on individual needs, personal freedom and self-actualization. 
Behaviorism: By careful control of the educational environment and with appropriate reinforcement techniques, teachers can cause students to exhibit desired behaviors. 
Constructivism: teachers should "understand students' understanding" and view learning as an active process in which learners construct meaning.

How can you develop your educational philosophy?  instead of basing their teaching  on only one educational philosophy, most teachers develop an eclectic educational philosophy.  professional teachers continually strive for a clearer, more comprehensive answer to basic philisophical questions.

What were teaching and schools like in the american colonies?
- colonial education was patterned after the British two-track system, and its primary objective was to promote religion. 
- colonial teachers had low status, though respect increased with grade level. 
- puritans believed that children were naturally corrupt and sinful and should be disciplined sternly at the dame schools, reading and writing schools, and latin grammar schools common to the colonies. 
- one of the first schools for african americans and native americans was started in 1704
- mandated education in the US had its origins in two colonial laws: the massachusetts acts of 1642 (prior to this act parents could choose if their child would be educated at home or at school but after this act the choice was no longer voluntary) and 1647 (mandated the establishment and support of schools)
- teachers in colonial schools needed minimal qualifications
- parochial schools were based off of religious beliefs
- dame schools were run by widows or housewives in their homes and supported by modest fees by parents.  classes were generally held in the kitchen where children learned the bare minimums.  HORN BOOK was a copy of the alphabet covered by a thin transparent sheet made from a cows horn.
- reading and writing schools: where boys recieved an educatuon that went beyond what their parents could teach them at home or what they could learn at a dame school.
- latin grammar schools: comparable to today's secondary school, prep for harvard college
- schools for african americans and native americans

What were the goals of education during the revolutionary period?
- Benjamin Franklin's academy: philadelphia academy which replaced old latin grammar schools which focused on english language rather than latin.  emphasized the classics as well as practical knowledge and skills.
- Sarah Pierce's female academy: female seminaries trained women for higher education and public service outside the home. 
- Thomas Jefferson's philosophy
- Noah Webster's speller: noah came out with the first text book which was published throughout the united states
- education for african americans and native americans: schools started (many by the quakers) so that african americans and native americans could get an education.

How was the struggle won for the state-supported common schools?
- Horace Mann: his main goal was to improve schools, the normal school- curriculum consisted of general knowledge courses plus courses in pedagogy (teaching) and practice teaching in a model school affiliated with a normal school.
- reverand W. H. mcguffey's readers: far more popular than noah webster's speller.  taught countless children and adults how to read and study.

How did compulsory education change schools and the teaching profession?
- scientific management: school officials undertook reforms based on management principles and techniques from big business.
- the kindergarten: stressed the motor development and self-activity of children before they began formal schooling at the elementary level.
- higher education for african americns
- the NEA and the AFT were founded to professionalize teaching and increase teachers salaries and benifits
- the NEA appointed the committee of ten and committee of fifteen to make recommendations for the secondary and elementary curricula

What werre the aims of education during the progressive era?
- john dewey's labratory school at the university of chicago, a model of progressive education, offered a curriculum based on children's interests and needs.
- public criticism of progressive education led to its decline at the start of WWII
- school enrollments became increasingly diverse as a result of immigration and a goal of education was the rapid assimilation of all groups into an english-speaking anglo-european culture.

How did education change during the modern postwar era?
- the soviet union's launching of the sputnick in 1957 sparked educational reform, particularly in science, mathematics, and foreign language education. schools were ordered to desegregate due to brown vs board of edu.
- innovate curricula and instructional strategies were used in many classrooms of the 1960's. 
- alarmed by declining test scores, the public became critical of schools in the 70's and demanded accountability.  an array of federak legislation was passed to provide equal educational opportunity for all students.
- in response to continuing challenges to education today, teachers are taking leadership roles in school reconstruring, school governance, curriculum change, and other aspects of educational reform.

What are the educational priorities of the new century?
- three trends will continue to be educational priorities during this century: equity for all students, excellence and high standards, and accountability for schools and teachers

Why do you need to understand educational politics?
     a) To become a voice for the childrn tey teach
     b) To speak out for or against educational policies
     c) To set a direction for schools in America
     d) Understand the amount and distribution of funds for education
     e) To what and how teachers teach in the classroom

School policies are developed in a political milieu
Reforming schools is a (essentially) series of political acts

Politics- refers to how people use power, influence, and authority within an organization
               to persuade others to act in desired way.

Educational governance structure embraces Political Units:  
                    US Congress              Us Department of Education
                    State governments     Local school districts

10 identified groups that shape educational policies

1. Parents- concerned with controlling local schools so that quality education programs are available

2. Students- concerned with policies related to freedom of expression

3. Teachers- Concerned with their role in school to reform, and improving working conditions

4. Administrators- Concerned with providing leadership so that various interest groups participate in the shared governance of schools and developmental qualities

5. taxpayers- concerned with maintaining an appropriate for determining financial support for schools

6. Federal Sate and Local authorities- Concerned with implementation of court orders  

7. Ethnic and Racial groups- concerned with availability of equal educational opportunity for all

8. Educational theorist and researchers- concerned with using theoretical and research based insights as the basis for improving schools

9.Corporate sector- concerned with receiving from the schools graduates who have the knowledge skills and attitudes to help and organization realize its goals

10. Special interest groups- advancing educational reforms to reflect particular religious, philosophical, and economic points of view.

Educational Politics- to affect instructional and curricular practices with in a school or 
                                 school system

How does the local community influence schools?
     The Tenth Amendment used as a basis for giving states the legal authorityto create and manage school systems and gives to the states all powers not reserved for the federal govrnment and not prohibited to the states
     Local school districts- Organizationa structures of school districts differ. Large urban system (several districts) tend to have a more complex distribution of roles and responsibility
     School Boards- acting as a state agent is responsible for: approving the teachers, administrators, school personnel hired by the superintendent, developing organizational and educational policies and determining procedures for evaluationg programs and personnel. School board members are elected in general elections (some by mayor in urban areas) 3-5 year terms. Board size range form 5-15 members (paid positions). Board meetings are open to the public. Open meetings allow parents and interested citizens an opportunit to express their concerns and to get information about problems in the district.  Effective boards focus on students achievements, allocate resourcs to needs, watch the return on invstments, use data, egage the communities they serve (Ward & Griffin, March 21, 2006)
     Superintendent of Schools- Key figure in determining district's educational  policy. Board of Education deligates broad powers to the superintendent as his/her policies require board approval.  Effective superintendents play 3 roles simultaneously: politician, manager, and teacher.
     The Role of Parents- Schools develop clos working relationships with parents. Children whose parents support and encourage activities have an advantage in school. Participation on school advisory and site based councils aid in restructuring and school reform efforts. Parent-teacher associations (PTA) gives parents the opportunity to communicate with teachers. (PTO, PA councils) Many parents also influence character of education of private, parochial, for-profit, and charter schools. Also, involvement in promoting school choice, voucher system, and the home schooling movement.

School Resturcturing- To improve the peformance of schools, to enhance the profesional status of teachers, andto decentralize the system of govnance. Allowing those who know students best - teachers, principals, aids, custodians, librarians, secretries, and parents - greater freedom in deciding how to meet studen needs (shared governance, administrative decentralization, teacher empowerment and other names)

The Handbook on Restructurng and Substantial School Improvement (authored by The Academic Development Institute with support from the US Dept. of Education "indicators" for successful restructued school.
     Team structure-improvement plan and school governance policy
     •Leadership Team- principals, teachers who lead instructional teams (key professional staff) meeings and regularly looks at school performance data
     •Professional Development of teachers- effective teaching
     •Parent policies, activities, and programs cultivate the "curriculum of the home"
     •School maintains a centrl database- student test scores, placement information, demographics, attendence, behavior, and other variables

School Based Management (SBM) 3 components in common
     (1) Power and decisions formerly made by the superintendent and school board are delegated to teachers, principals, parents, and community members and studnts at local schools
     (2) At each school, a decision-making body (known as a board, cabinet, site-based team, or council- teachers, principals, parents)
     (3) SBM operate with ful suppor of superintendent of schools

What powers and influence do states have in governing schools?
      Higher student preformance, more efficent use of resources
      Increased skills, satifaction in school administration and teachers, greater involvement in and support for schools

The Legislature- establishing and maintaining public schools and for determining educational policies
     (1) How the state board of education will be selected and their responsibilities are
     (2) Chief state schol officer will be selected and what duties will be
     (3) How the state department of education will function
     (4) How state will be divided into local and regional districts
     (5) How higher education will be organized and financed
     (6) How local school boards will be selected and what their powers will be
     (7) May determin how taxes will be used to support schools, what will be taught, length of school day/year, how many years of compusory education will be required, whether state will have community college, and vocational/technical schools.
Legislatures may pass laws that provide for reasonable supervision of nonpublic educational instutitions

The State Courts- called on to uphold the power of the legislature to develop laws that apply to schools
The Governor- may appoint/remove educators at the state level...use his veto powers to influence the legislature to ass certain laws related to education. Make educational budget recommendations to legislature. National Governors' Association (NGA) is active in theacher education and school reforms.

State Board of Education- under the authority of the state legislature, highest educational agency in the state (2 separate boards (1) elementary-secondary (2) Higher education) concerned with policy making.
(a) ensuring local school districts adhere to educational policies, rules and regulations
(b) setting standards for issuing/revoking teaching and adminstrative certificates
(c) establishing standards for accrediting schools
(d) managing state monies
(e) develop and implementing a system for collecting educational data
(f) advising the governor on issues
(g) identifying short/long range educational needs
(h) hearing all disputes arising from educational policies

State Department of Education
The educational program implemented by state concerned with the day-to-day implementation of those policies.  Elementary and Secondary Act (1965) required that local applications for federal funds to be used for innovative programs and for the education of disadvantage/disabled, bilingual and migrant students, certifying teachers, distributing state/federal funds, reporting to the public conditions of education within the state ensuring school districts adhere to state/federal guidelines, accrediting schools, monitoring students transportation and safety, sponsoring research and evaluation projects to improve education within the state.

Chief State School Officer- (Superintendent of Public Istruction)- chief administrator of the Dept. of Education and head of the state board of education. Can be appointed by board of education, general election or appointed by governor.  Serve as chief aministrator of state department of education. Select state department of education personnel, recommending educational policies/budget to the state board. Interpreting state school laws and state board of education policies, ensuring compliance with state school laws and policies, mediating controversies involving operation of school within the state. Arranging for studies, comittees and task forces to address educational problems/recommend solutions, rporting on status of Education to governor, legislature, state board, and the public.

How do regional education agencies assist schools? Regional Educational Service Agency (RESA)
Local school districts can receive supportive services
Provide assistance directly to districts in the areas of staff development, curriculum development, instructional media, and program evaluation. Also, school improvement efforts

How does the federal government influence education?
The strength and well-being of the country are directly related to the quality of its schools. Rights of free speech of teachers and students under the First Amendment and the right of all citizens to equal educational opportunities under the Fourteeth Amendment

Federal Initiaives- Lanham Act (1941) 
Provides funding for: (1) training workers in war plants (office of Educational Personnel) (2) construction os schools in areas where military personnel and worers on federal projects resides (3) Provision of child care for children of working parents
G.I. Bill of Rights (1944) 

(1)Exert moral suasion- develop a vision and promote educational goals for the nation
(2)Provide catergorical aid- assist schools systems with funding if they adopt federally endorsed programs, methods, or curricula.
(3)Regulate-withhold federal funds if a school system fails to follow legl statutes related to equal educational opportunity
(4)Fund educational research- indentify and then fund reseach projects related to federal goals for education

The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (2010) students would leave high school "college or career ready"
(1) improving teacher and principal effectiveness
(2) providing information to families to help them evaluate and improve their children's school
(3) implementing college-and career-ready standards
(4) improving student learning and achievement in America's lowest preforming school by providing intensive support and effective interventions

Sources of Funding
A combination of revenue from local, state, and federal sources is used to finance public elementary and secondary schools in the United States.
Early in the 20th century, nearly all schools revenues were generated from local property taxes.
Local funding- property taxes
State funding- Sales taxes and income tax
Federal funding- Block grants, entitlements
(1981) Education Consolidation and Improvement Act
Broad range of choices in spending federal money

How will the privatzation movement affect equity and excellence in education?
Charter Schools- are independent, innovative, out-come based, public schools
For-profit schools- more efficient, reduce cost and maximize "production" student achievement
Teacher-owned Schools- teachers, administrators, and other educational stakeholders become owners of schools, thus aquiring a financisl stake in the process.

Plessy vs. Ferguson The state of Louisiana enacted a law that required separate railway cars for blacks and whites. In 1892, Homer Adolph Plessy--who was seven-eighths Caucasian--took a seat in a "whites only" car of a Louisiana train. He refused to move to the car reserved for blacks and was arrested The Supreme Court ruled that the "separate but equal" provision of the Louisiana law was constitutional. The case established this principle of segregation until it was overturned in 1954.

Engel v. Vitale1962It's unconstitutional to have an official school prayer to start the school day under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Here's the prayer banned by this Long Island, N.Y., case, similar to others around the country at that time: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our country. Amen."

Lemon v. Kurtzman1971Pennsylvania was reimbursing private schools for teachers' salaries, textbooks, and instructional materials, as long as the courses were secular or non-religious in nature, the same as in public schools, and the curriculum was approved by the State. However, the practice was thrown out as constituting "excessive entanglement" between government and religion. The court also set up "The Lemon Law," to be used in future cases deciding whether there has been sufficient separation of church and state in various matters. A state law must have a secular, non-religious purpose; the effect of the law must neither advance nor inhibit religion; the money should flow to the parents and not to the schools, and it shouldn't foster over-involvement of church and state.

Plyler v. Doe1982Public schools have to allow the children of illegal aliens to enroll, and state and local tax bodies have to pay the costs.

Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier1988Student journalists don't have the same "public forum" as adult journalists. They must obey censorship decisions by school officials since the school newspaper is produced as part of the school curriculum, under the guidance of a teacher during school hours, and students receive a grade for their work. Thus the publication thus bears the "imprimatur," or stamp of approval, of the school. The principal in this case banned student newspaper content about pregnancy and divorce because he felt the pregnant student was identifiable, and the adult subject of a derogatory article was not given a chance to present his point of view.

Zelman v. Simmons-Harris2002School-choice vouchers were declared constitutional under the First Amendment, even though sometimes they funnel money from state taxpayers to private, religious schools in this landmark case out of Cleveland, Ohio. The state's voucher plan provided $2,250 a year to some parents of students in the Cleveland City School District to attend participating public or private schools in the city and neighboring suburbs; it also allocated tutorial aid for students who remained in public school. Far more families applied for the vouchers than there was funding for them, and about eight out of 10 of the participating private schools had a religious affiliation. In a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that vouchers to private schools were allowable as long as the school's program had a valid secular purpose, the aid was going to the parents and not to the schools, a broad class of beneficiaries were participating, voucher allocation was neutral with respect to religion, and there must be adequate nonreligious options.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kan.1954Racial segregation of schools was ended because all citizens have "equal protection under the law." In Topeka, an African-American student named Linda Brown had to walk five miles to the local school that enrolled minority students, when a "white" school was right across the train tracks from her home.
Goss v. Lopez: This 1975 decision bolstered students' rights in the face of disciplinary action. Dwight Lopez and eight other students were suspended from Ohio's Marion-Franklin High School for destruction of property. However, their suspension came without a hearing or parental notification, and the swiftness and execution of that punishment was deemed by the Supreme Court (ruling 5-4) to be a violation of students' rights to due process of the 14th Amendment. The ruling didn't do anything to condone Lopez's actions, but it was important in determining that students are deserving of certain procedural rights when they're involved in disciplinary actions.
Bethel School District v. Fraser: This 1986 ruling was one of those that refined the Tinker test. A student named Matthew Fraser gave a speech on behalf of another student running for school office that was packed with sexual innuendo, and as a result, Fraser was suspended. He sued that the suspension violated his right to free speech, and though the district court and circuit court of appeals sided with Fraser, the Supreme Court overturned those rulings and said that his suspension had been constitutional. The Court said that while students should still expect reasonable chances to exercise free speech, the school has the right to monitor and punish sexually vulgar speech. It's a limiting of Tinker, but a helpful one for educators looking to strike a balance between speech and censorship.

Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe. This 2000 Supreme Court case dealt with prayer at football games. A high school in Texas allowed a student chaplain to recite Christian prayers over the P.A. system before football games, which raised the ire of some non-Christian parents, who sued under the Establishment Clause. The district court and the circuit court of appeals found that the prayers were acceptable as long as they were deemed "nonsectarian" and "non-proselytizing," but the parents appealed all the way to the Supreme Court. In a 6-3 ruling, the Supreme Court found that such prayers were indeed unconstitutional, since the prayers were happening at school-sponsored events, on school property, using members of the student body. As a result, no amount of nonsectarian labeling could change the fact that the prayers would seem to be issued at the school's request and with its approval, which violates the Establishment Clause.

Board of Education of Independent School District #92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls (2002)
Random drug tests of students involved in extracurricular activities do not violate the Fourth Amendment.
In Veronia School District v. Acton (1995), the Supreme Court held that random drug tests of student athletes do not violate the Fourth Amendment's prohibition of unreasonable searches and seizures. Some schools then began to require drug tests of all students in extracurricular activities. The Supreme Court in Earls upheld this practice.

Murray v. Pittsburgh Board of Public Education-This action arises under the Civil Rights Act of 1871, 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Plaintiff, Diane Murray, is a high school English teacher employed by the Pittsburgh Board of Public Education. She challenges a school policy that prohibits her from using a classroom management technique called "Learnball"; organizing an after-school activity called a "Learnball Superbowl"; and displaying Learnball symbols, literature, and related paraphernalia in her classroom. Plaintiff seeks a declaratory judgment that the policy constitutes an unconstitutional restraint of free speech in violation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. She also seeks permanent injunctive relief.

Flores v. Morgan hill Unified School District-2003-In 1998, Alana Flores, Freddie Fuentes, Jeanette Dousharm, and three other students sued the Morgan Hill Unified School District in Morgan Hill, California, charging that school district employees repeatedly ignored or minimized many reports by the students that they were being abused by others who thought they were gay. As a result of the settlement, the district will implement a comprehensive training program for administrators, staff, and students to combat anti-gay harassment.

In December 2004, the ACLU-PA sued the Dover Area School District on behalf of eleven parents who objected to the recent policy that required the teaching of intelligent design in biology classes as an alternative to evolution. We allege that intelligent design is stealth creationism and, therefore, teaching a religious doctrine in science class violates the Establishment Clause. .

Kitzmiller vs. Dover Area School District-The six-week trial concluded on November 4, 2005. On December 20, 2006, Judge John E. Jones II issued a blistering 139-page opinion in which he found intelligent design to be a religious view and not a scientific theory.

J.C. v. Beverly Hills Unified School District 2009-
the court held that discipline for students who created a crude video
mocking other students off-campus, and subsequently posted it on YouTube, was
unwarranted because the video did not create a risk of a substantial disruption
to the educational process. Because there were no threats or violence in the
video, the court reasoned that no jury could reasonably conclude that the video
could have caused a substantial disruption in the school

Due Process- cannot be violated-protection from being treated arbitrarily by those in authority.

Nondiscrimination- employment protected by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Teaching Contract- an agreement between teacher and a board of education.
Valid-
1. Offer and acceptance
2.Competent parties(meets criteria)
3.Consideration-remuneration is promised
4.Legal Subject matter-the contract terms are neither illegal nor against public policy
5. Proper Form-contract afheres to state contract laws

Tenure-job security,prevention from dismissal, 2-5 years

Good reason for dismissal-
1.incompetence or inefficiency
2.neglect of duty
3.conduct unbecoming teacher
4. insubordination
5.subversive behavior
6. decreased need for service
7.physical/mental health
8.encouraging disruption

Collective bargaining laws-laws that require school boards to negotiate contracts with teacher organizations
Grievance-formal complaint against his/her employer
Horton-ville Joint School District No. 1 v. Hortonville Education Association 1976

Academic Freedom-teachers have the right to use methods and materials to which school officials may object too. Murray v. Pittsburgh Board of Public Education

John Scopes Trial-Monkey Trial teaching about evolution

Krizek v. Cicero-Stickney Township High School District No.201 1989-district court ruled against a teacher who showed an R-rated movie (About Last Night) as a modern day parallel to Thorton Wilders play Our Town. Did not communicate with parents directly.

Mozert v. Hawkins County Board of Education 1987.1988- group of Tennessee parents objected to "secular humanist" materials used by their childrens teachers.

Smith v. Board of School Commissioners of Mobile County 1987,suit alleging 44 historu, social studies, home economics texts used encouraged immorality, undetermined authority, imbued "humanist" faith.

Tort Liability-an individual who is negligent and at fault in the exercise of his/her legal duty may be required to pay monetary damages to an injured party.

Negligence-held liable for injuries due to ignorance to situations
-inadequate supervision
-inadequate instruction
-lack or improper medical treatment
-improper disclosure or defamatory information concerning pupils

Educational malpractice-schools should be responsible for a pupil whose failure to achieve is significant.
Peter Doe v. San Francisco...- charged the San Francisco Unified District because they allowed him to graduate high school at a fifth grade reading level.

Fourth Amendment- protects against unlawful search and seizure

Picarella v Terrizzi- Can search a child if child abuse is suspected

Copyright laws

Marcus V. Rowley 1983- one may use the copyrighted material in a reasonable manner without the copyright holders consent as lone as that use does not reduce the demand for the work or authors income.

Digital Millennium Copyright Act- illegal to circumvent copy-blocking measures that control access to copyrighted work.

Brevity-short works can be copied 10% of a large work
Spontaneity- no time to request permission(last min. find)
Effect-limit use of copies to one time

*Culture is not only a matter of race or the color of a person's skin; it includes the shared norms, traditions, behaviors, language, and perceptions of a group. As a teacher it is important to be aware of your students' culture differences and be able to incorporate these differences into your lessons--Amanda, Teacher Education program, first year

*About half of today's children will spend some portion of childhood in a single-parent family, and more than a third will live with a stepparent. Over half of marriages end in divorce, and two-thirds of divorced women and three-quarters of divorced men will remarry. (Heilnan,2008, pg.9)

*How is Diversity Reflected in the Culture of the United States?
     Children of immigrants accounted for the entire growth in number of young children in the U.S. between 1990 and 2008 (Urban Institute, August 2010, p.1). Half from Latin American countries- Mexico, Central America and Spanish-speaking Caribbean and South America. Census Bureau estimates that by 2025 half of the U.S. youth will be white and half minority. By 2050, no single group will be a majority among adults.
     Increasing diversity in the United States is reflected in the nation's schools. 
2008- 45% of public school students were part of a minority group (13% increase from 1988).  1998-2008- white students from 68% to 55%
            Hispanic- 22% of public school enrollment -up 11% (1988)
            Black students- 16% public school 2008-down 1% (1988) to
            Other racial and ethnic groups increased 4% (1998) to 7% (2008) (Aud et el., 2010)

*The Meaning of Culture
     Culture is the way of life common to a group of people.  It consist of the values, attitudes, and beliefs that influence their traditions and behaviors.  It is also a way of interacting with and looking at the world.  "A salad bowl" analogy captures more accurately the cultural pluralism of U.S. society.

"Everyone in the United States share some common dimensions of culture". James Banks-Authority on Multicultural Education, "National Macro culture".

*Dimensions of Culture
     Culture groups differ according to other distinguishing factors: religion, politics, economic, and geographic region.
1. Ethnic group- made up of individuals within a large culture who share a self-defined racial or cultural identity and a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values.  Distinguish themselves from others in society by physical and social attributes.

*Cultural Identity
     Each individual participates in an array of subcultures  (each with it's customs and beliefs). Collectively, these subcultures determine an individual's cultural identity.  An overall sense of who one is.  Other elements include age, racial identity, exceptionalities, language, gender, sexual orientation, income level, and beliefs and values.  For some cultural identity is most strongly determined by occupations, ethnicity or religious beliefs. 

*Individualistic Culture: (U.S., Canada, Western Europe, Australia) individual uniqueness, self-determination, independence, self-reliance, and individual achievement, self-expression, individual choice, equality of relationships, task orientation, individual will-being, self-esteem, emphasizes the individual and his or her success and achievement.

*Collectivistic Culture: (many Asian, African, South American) Loyal to group and family, interdependence, cooperation and group success, adherence to group norms, group consensus, hierarchical relationships, group orientation, group well-being modesty, emphasizes group memberships and a sense of "we" rather then "I".

*Language and Culture: conflict among different groups in our society.  Preservation of ethnic cultures, non-English-speaking group should learn English, preserve linguistic diversity, conflict with those who wish to establish English as a national language.
Bilingual Education: using two languages as the medium of instruction to help students maintain their ethnic identity and become proficient in both English and the language of home, to encourage assimilation into mainstream culture.

*The Concept of Multiculturalism- importance of seeing the world from different cultural framed of reference, and recognizing and valuing the rich array of cultures within a nation and global community.  Affirms the need to create schools where differences related to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and social class are acknowledged and all students are viewed as valuable resources for enriching the teaching-learning process. Central purpose is to prepare students to live in a cultural pluralistic world.

*Ethnicity and Race
     Ethnicity refers to a "shared sense of peoplehood, culture, identity, and shared language and dialects.
Race is a subjective concept that is used to distinguish among human beings on the basis of biological traits.

*The Concept of Minorities
     Minority-any group numbering less than half of the total population.

*Minority Groups and Academic Achievement
     It has been estimated that ethnic minority students are two to four times more likely than others to drop out of high school. 70-75% of White students who start high school graduate in four years.  50% African American and Latino students graduate.  When we consider the lower achievement levels of minority student, it is important to note the much higher incidence of poverty among minority families and the research showing that socioeconomic status-not race-language, or culture-contributes most strongly to students' achievement in school.

*Stereotyping and Racism
     Stereotyping-is the process of attributing behavioral characteristics to all members of a group.

*Individual Racism-the prejudicial belief that one's ethnic or racial group is superior to others.

*Institutional Racism-which occurs when institution's "behave in ways that are overtly racist."  If you believe "that human groups can be validly groups on the basis of their biological traits and that these identifiable groups inherit certain mental, personality, and cultural charactistics that determine their behavior, then you hold racist beliefs". (Banks, 2009, p. 72)

*Class and Socioeconomic Status
     19% Children in the US live in poor families (at poverty level)
     41% Children in low-income families
Teachers in inner-city schools or schools in poor rural communities may find that nearly all their students are from families who live in poverty. Poverty can impede children's ability to learn and contribute to social, emotional, and behavioral problems. 
Cultural of Poverty- passed from generation to generation because of the increasing difficulty for children of the poor to receive adequate education and job training.

*Religious Pluralism--
     Population can be grouped into more than a dozen major religious traditions that, in turn, can be divided into hundreds of distinct religious groups.

*What does Equal Educational Opportunity mean?
Providing educational opportunity to all students that teachers and schools promote the ull development of students as individuals, without regard for race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, religion, abilities, or disabilities.

*Education and African Americans
     The struggle of African Americans to improve their quality of life after the end of slavery has been hampered for generations by persistent racism, discriminations, poverty, crime, unemployment, and underemployment.  The Civil Rights movement of the 1960's  and 1970's made it clear that African Americans had been denied full access to many aspects of US life (including the right to a good education).
    
The Desegregation Era--
     The most blatant form of discrimination against African Americans has been school segregation and unequal educational opportunity. Prior to 1950's segregation was legal. Separate but equal school--NAACP brought suit (Brown vs. Board of Education, Topeka, Kanas)

Resegregation of schools in the United States
     Judicial supervision of school districts' efforts to resegregate removed.

*The Learning Needs of African Americans Students
     The failure of the school curriculum to address their learning needs may contribute to high drop-out rates and below-average achievement.  Teaching strategies that emphasize cooperation (not competition) often results in higher achievement.
Afrocentric Schools--Schools that focus on African American history and cultures for American (African) pupils.

*Education and Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
     At least 34 ethnic groups who speak more than 300 languages and dialects.  Teachers concerns about Asian American students.  Asians over 25 have a bachelor's degree (42.9%).  Parents tend to require their children to respect authority and value education.

*Education and Native Americans and Alaskan Natives
     517 federally recognized, 365 state-recognized tribes, each with it's own language.  Indian Education Act of 1972 and Amendments (1974)

*Historical, Cultural, and Socioeconomic Factors
     Native Americans have endured systematic long-term attempts to eradicate their language and cultures.  The Indian Education Act provide direct educational assistance to tribes. 
 
*What is meant by Bilingual Education?
     Programs are designed to meet the learning needs of students whose first language is not English by providing instruction in two languages.  Research and debate on Bilingual Programs have little effect on achievement.  Others have found that well-designed bilingual programs do increase students achievement.
Four types of Bilingual Programs
1. Immersion-students learn English/only English is spoken
2. Transition-students receive reading lessons in their first language/lessons in English as a second language
3. Pullout Programs-students separated from English speaking students
4. Maintenance Programs-instructions in English and the native language are provided from K-12.  

*What is Multicultural Education?
     Is committed to the goal of providing all students-regardless of socioeconomic status; sexual orientation; or ethnic, racial, or cultural backgrounds- with equal opportunities to learn in school.

Dimensions of Multicultural Education (5)
1. Content integration 2. the knowledge construction process 3. prejudice reduction 4. an equity pedagogy 5. an empowering school culture and social structure.

Multicultural Curricula-addresses the needs and background of all students regard of their cultural identity.

Multicultural Instructional Materials and Strategies
Teachers must select instructional materials that are sensitive, accurately portray the contributions of ethnic groups, and reflect diverse points of view.

*Essential knowledge and skills for successful teaching in a diverse society
     A. ability to communicate with students from other cultures
     B. skills in assessing the knowledge and abilities of students
     C. increased openness to examining and reassessing one's own culture attitudes,          values, and beliefs.
     D. increased ability to respond positively and sensitively to the diversity of behavior in multicultural settings.
     E. Knowledge about the psychology, dynamics, and impact of prejudice and racism.
     F. increased capacity for humane, sensitive, and critical inquiry into multicultural issues as they relate to teaching. 
     G. deeper knowledge of one's own and other cultures/people are more alike than different.
     H. appreciation for differences among the value systems of diverse ethnic, racial, and class subcultures. 

*How is Gender a Dimension of Multicultural Education?
     Gender affects students' learning in many ways. Gender differences-sex role stereotyping and sex role socialization.
Gender and Education-- Title IX of the Education Amendments Act (1972) women guaranteed equality of education.  Further enhanced Women's Educational Equity Act (WEEA) of 1974.  Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) students.  Teachers should acknowledge the special needs of these students.
Gender-fair classrooms and curricula--Teachers must encourage girls and boys to develop and provide them an education that is free from gender-basis.

*Culture is not only a matter of race or the color of a person's skin; it includes the shared norms, traditions, behaviors, language, and perceptions of a group. As a teacher it is important to be aware of your students' culture differences and be able to incorporate these differences into your lessons--Amanda, Teacher Education program, first year

*About half of today's children will spend some portion of childhood in a single-parent family, and more than a third will live with a stepparent. Over half of marriages end in divorce, and two-thirds of divorced women and three-quarters of divorced men will remarry. (Heilnan,2008, pg.9)

*How is Diversity Reflected in the Culture of the United States?
     Children of immigrants accounted for the entire growth in number of young children in the U.S. between 1990 and 2008 (Urban Institute, August 2010, p.1). Half from Latin American countries- Mexico, Central America and Spanish-speaking Caribbean and South America. Census Bureau estimates that by 2025 half of the U.S. youth will be white and half minority. By 2050, no single group will be a majority among adults.
     Increasing diversity in the United States is reflected in the nation's schools. 
2008- 45% of public school students were part of a minority group (13% increase from 1988).  1998-2008- white students from 68% to 55%
            Hispanic- 22% of public school enrollment -up 11% (1988)
            Black students- 16% public school 2008-down 1% (1988) to
            Other racial and ethnic groups increased 4% (1998) to 7% (2008) (Aud et el., 2010)

"Who invented White People?"
     Scholar Gregory Jay (b.1952) wrote we should include whiteness in discussions relating to race.
*The Civil Rights Act (1965)  Dr. King's greatest legacy, Americans faced the facts that changing the laws did not change the feelings and beliefs of individuals, black and white.  The "old boy networks" at major corporations ensures the continuation of white male dominance.  It was white people who invented the idea of race in the first place, and it is white people who have become obsessed and consumed by it and have become entangled so deeply in pursuing its nature that they self-destruct in the process.

Toni Morrison--(Playing in the Dark: Whitened and the Literary Imagination) Melville and other great writers of American tradition tell story of "whiteness" over and over.  White identity defines itself against the backdrop of an African or colored presence: Moby Dick, Huck Finn, and Bill Cosby in "I Spy" and any number of black-white films. White Americans can only define t themselves by comparison to that which they are not, so whiteness depends on blackness for its very definition.

Scholars of race generally agree that the modern meaning of whiteness emerges in the centuries of European colonialism and imperialism that followed Renaissance.
Beginning in the 1500's, European began to develop what became known as "scientific racism"; the attempt to construct a biological rather then cultural definition of race.

By the nineteenth century, race scientists settled on the term "Caucasians" as a synonym for Europeans.
For white people, race functions as a large ensemble of practice and rules that gives white people all sorts of small and large advantages in life. The privileges of whiteness are the "not-so-secret" dirty truth about race relations in America. Talk of race in America should include whiteness.

Diversity Vs White Privilege

Interview: Christine Sleeter (Cal State Univ.)
     Multicultural education as a struggle against white racism rather than multiculturalism as a way to appreciate diversity. Both historically and in contemporary society, the relationships between racial and ethnics groups in this country are framed within a context of unequal power.  People of European descent generally assumed the power to claim the land, claim the resources, claim the language.  They even claim the right to frame the culture and identity of who we are as Americans.
     Multicultural education come out of the Civil Rights movement. The central issue remains on of justice.Q. A lot of white people resist using terms such as white racism, white supremacy, white privilege. How do you break through that defensiveness where they might argue, "I am where I am because I worked hard, not because I am white."
One tactic is to look at family stories and situate those stories in a historical context. Let's use my grandfather as an example again. My grandfather worked very hard and I can't say that he didn't. But I can't just individualize his success. I have to look at it in the historical context of who had access to what. This allows me to say that yes, my grandfather worked hard, but in a situation in which the doors were closed to people who may have worked equally hard but who were not white.   Q. Some people argue that multicultural education is being undermined by standardized testing, which rewards superficial knowledge about conventional aspects of the curriculum. On the other hand, some community groups, particularly in communities of color, argue that we need much more accountability because obviously the schools have underserved their children. How might people committed to multicultural curriculum and academic equity balance those two perspectives?
That's a very important question. I don't advocate just simply throwing out testing. Testing that's used to guide instruction is extremely important. We need to monitor how kids are doing because kids of color and low-income white kids have been underschooled historically. So I believe in testing to improve instruction.

Rethinking School
     How we approach multicultural Education and the challenges faced with development of curricula the deals with these issues. Faculty composition and educating teachers on "true racism".  What is defined by the term racism? In a color-blind approach, there is a whole lot about a student that you are not seeing.

*Stimulus Response--Based on the principle that desirable behavior can be the product of design rather then accident. Our behavior is determined by forces in the environment that shape our behavior.

Homogeneous--same abilities/of the same or a similar kind of nature
Heterogeneous--different in kind, unlike, having widely dissimilar elements or constituents

• Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development, logical development of person
  
• Preoperational stage: 2-7, individual begins to use language and symbols to think of objects and people outside the immediate environment.
  
• Concrete operations stage: 7-11 individual develops the ability to use logical thoughts to solve concrete problems.
  
• formal operations stage: 11-15 cognitive abilities reach their highest level of development.
• Erikson's Model of Psychological development
• Infancy: 0-18 months, trust v. basic mistrust; Infant needs to be nurtured and loved.
  
• Early Childhood: 1.5-3, Autonomy v. shame; child focuses on developing physical skills
  
• Play Age: 3-6, Initiation v. guilt; child learns to develop skills through play and cooperation.
  
• School Age: 6-12, Industry v. inferiority; child acquires news skills, knowledge, develops sense of achievement
  
• Adolescence: 12-20, Identity v. role confusion, identity diffusion; Adolescence focuses on clarifying identity, developing social relationships with peers and others, grappling with moral issues.
  
• Young Adulthood: 20-35, Intimacy v. Isolation; young adult seeks companionship and love through relationships with friends and becoming intimate with a "significant other"
  
• Middle Adulthood: 35-65, Generativity v. self-absorption or stagnation; adult focuses on family relationships, parenting, and creative and meaningful work.
• Late Adult Hood: 60-death, Integrity v. despair; adult focuses on meaning and purpose in one's life, lifetime accomplishments and contributions, acceptance of oneself and fulfillment.
• Kohlberg's Model of Moral Development, why we morally do things
  
• Preconventional Level of Moral Reasoning: child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong, but interprets these in terms of consequences of action (punishment, reward, exchanges, or favors.
• Stage 1: punishment-and-obediant orientation.
• physical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness.
• Avoidance of punishment and deference of power are valued.
  
• stage 2: the instrumental-relevist orientation.
• Right action consists that which satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of other
• Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours."
• Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning: Maintaining the expectations of the individual's family, group, or nation is perceived as valuable,regardless of consequences.
• Stage 3: The Interpersonal concordance or "good boy nice girl" orientation
• Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them.
• Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation 
• Orientation toward fixed rules and the maintenance of the social order.
  
• Right behavior consists of doing one's duty and showing respect for others.
•   Postconventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level of Moral Reasoning: Effort to define moral principles that have validity and application apart from the authority of groups.
• Stage 5: The Social contract, legalistic orientation.
• Right action defined in terms of rights and standards that are agreed on by the whole society.
• This is the "official" morality of the U.S. government and Constitution.
• Stage 6: The universal-ethic-principle orientation
• Right is defined by conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logic and universality.
• Maslow's Model of Hierachy of Needs
• Defiency Needs (need to be satisfied first)
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety Needs
3. Belongingness and Love Needs
4. Esteem Needs
• Being (growth needs)
1. Need to know and understand
2. Aesthetic needs
3. Self-actualization need
• How do Students Vary om Intelligence
  
• Different perspectives on Intelligence
1. adaptive
2. learning ability
3. use of prior knowledge
4. coordination of many different thinking and reasoning processes
5. It is culture specific
• Intelligence Testing
• Multiple Intelligences- there are many ways to be smart
• emotional intelligence: awarness of and ability to manage their feelings
• The eight Intelligences-
1. logical-mathematical
   
2. linguistic
3. musical
4. spatial
5. bodily-kinesthetic
6. interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalist
• Learning styles-the approaches to learning that work best for them.
• How do students vary in ability and disability
• Students with special needs
• students with disabilities are provided with special education and related services.
• exceptional learners: students whose growth and development deviate from the norm to the extent that their educational needs can be met more effectively through a modification of regular school programs.
• Different types of special needs-
1. specific learning disabilities (LD)- most common
   
2. speech or language impairments
3. mental retardation
4. serious emotional disturbance (SED)
5. Hearing Impairments
6. Orthopedic impairments
7. Other health impairments
8. Visual Impairments
9. Multiple disabilities
10. Deaf-blindness
11. Autism and other
• ADHD: one of the most common diagnosed disabilities among children
• ADD: have difficulty focusing their attention long enough to learn well.
• Both ADD, ADHD do not qualify for special education unless they have another disability in a federally defined category.
• Students who are gifted and talented
• characteristics of the gifted
1. Preocity
2. Perceptual sensitivty
3. persistent concentration
4. superior memory
5. efficient coordination
   
6. curtailed learning and reasoning
7. flexible thinking
8. metacognitive awareness
9. speedy processing
10. philosophical thinking
• Accelerated programs
  
• Elementary school-  early entrance, grade skipping, curriculum compacting
  
• junior high school- grade skipping, grade telescoping, concurrent enrollment in high school, or college, subject acceleration, and curriculum compacting
  
• Senior high school- concurrent enrollment, subject acceleration, AP classes, mentorships, early admission to college
• Self Directed or Independent Study
• Individual Education Programs (IEP's)
  
• Alternative or Magnet Schools
• What are special education and inclusion
• Special Education: services and supports that teachers provide to meet the needs of students who are identified with disabilities
• Special Education Laws
• Education for All Handicapped Children: guaranteed children with special needs a public education
  
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): extended previous law to youth children 3-21.
• Amendments to the IDEA (IDEA 97): amended outcomes, requirements, guidelines, procedural safeguards, discipline
• required children with special needs to be educated in the least restrictive environment.
• Response to Intervention Model- Many states adopted this to meet the new retirements of the 2004 IDEA.
• general education teachers work with special education teachers on screenings and academic progress monitoring.
• Individualized education program (IEP): every child must have an IEP to meet the child's specific needs, educational goals, methods for achievement, number and quality of special educational services.
• IEP to be reviewed annually by
1. parent or guardian
2. child
3. teacher
4. professional who has recently evaluated the child
5. others- usually principles or a special education resource person from school district.
• Inclusion: to integrate all students with disabilities into general education classes and school life with the active support of special educators and other specialists and service providers, as well as assistive technology and adaptive software.
• Full Inclusion: the general education classroom is the most appropriate full-time placement for all students with disabilities-not only those with mild learning and behavior problems, but alos those with more severe disabilities.
• How can you teach all learners in your inclusive classroom
• Collaborative consultation: a classroom teacher meets with one or more other professionals  to focus on the learning needs of one or more students.
• different professionals to consult with
1. consulting teacher
2. resource-room teacher
3. school psychologist
4. speech and language specialist
5. physical therapist
   
6. occupational therapist
• Partnerships with Parents
• Assistive Technology for Special Learners
• types of assistive technology
1. PDAs, blackberries, iphones
   
2. computer based word processing/math tutorials
3. telecommunication equipment
4. computers with voice commands
5. talking word processor
6. speech synthesizer
7. touch-sensitive computer screens
8. teletypewriter-types a spoken message
9. computer screen enlarger
10. customized computer keyboards
11. ultrasonic head controls for computers
12. voice-recognition computers
13. television close captioning
    
14. Kurzweil reading machine (scans print and reads it aloud
    

Behaviorists believe that children develop as they do because of what they learn from experience.  While a variety of behavioral learning theories exist, they all view learning as a rather straight forward process.

Pavlov developed and tested the theory of classical conditioning.  He theorized that learning occurs when individuals begin to associate one event with another.  He proved this by ringing a bell while showing meat to dogs.  The smell of the meat caused the dogs to reflexively drool.  Over time, Pavlov would ring the bell without showing the meat and the dogs would still drool.  He proved that he could teach the dogs to drool by pairing the bell with the smell of the meat.  Later Watson applied this theory to people.

Skinner

Skinner started with the idea of classical conditioning and expanded it to describe more complex associations.  Skinner stated that animals and people display behaviors first by accident.  If a new behavior is followed by a pleasant event (e.g., food, praise, earning of stickers, etc.), the individual will gradually learn to repeat the behavior.  Thus, Skinner believed that learning occurs through the reinforcement of behaviors.  (Note that according to this belief even undesirable behaviors are learned through reinforcement.  For example, a toddler might ask for a treat and be told "no".  The toddler throws a tantrum and the adult relents stating that he/she will provide the treat if the toddler will behave.  If this process is repeated, the toddler will learn to throw tantrums as the adult has inadvertently reinforced the behavior.)  This learning theory is called operant conditioning.

Bandura

While Bandura's social learning theory is a behaviorist theory, it differs from that of classical and operant conditioning.  Bandura's theory is more complex; it considers more variables.  Bandura said that learning occurs through following processes:

• Humans acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors that are demonstrated by others.
• If the individual is reinforced the new behavior, the behavior is more likely to become part of his/her permanent repertoire.
• If the individual sees others reinforced for the behavior, the behavior is more likely to become part of his/her permanent repertoire.

Erikson

Erikson described development as occurring when individuals face and resolve a series of crises.  While Erikson gives an age to each stage of development, he did not view development as a strictly linear process.  According to Erikson, individuals will go back and re-experience earlier stages when in times of crisis.  These later relapses into earlier crises will be resolved more readily if the individual successfully resolved them initially.  For example, a young adult who successfully developed trust as an infant will re-experience the trust versus mistrust crisis when faced with an unexpected divorce but will be able to re-establish trust more easily than an adult who didn't successfully resolve this crisis in infancy.

Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory is probably the theory which is most widely applied in daycares and preschools in the United States.  His theory is very different from those we discussed in Module 4 as Piaget believes that children construct knowledge.  Children do this through assimilation andaccommodation.  Let's say that one young child lives in the country and another lives in the city.  The child in the country lives on a large farm far from the road surrounded by pastures and fields.  The child in the city lives in a row home with a sidewalk in front and a tiny, fenced yard and alley in back.  Both children travel with their parents to visit a mutual friend in the suburbs who lives in a town house.  The child from the city sees the houses connected together with yards both in front and behind.  While this is different from the child's own home, he recognizes the similarities and is able to connect this new home into his concept of "house."  This is the process of assimilation.  This child expands his understanding of "home" to include connected houses with front yards and no alleys.  This is the process of  accommodation.  However, the child from the country looks at this dwelling which is so different from his own.  He thinks about the buildings he has seen which are connected together and remembers shopping trips.  He decides that these people must live in a store.  Thus, the two children have the same experience but interpret it differently because of their differing background knowledge.  Piaget's  idea that children are actively involved this way in the learning process was revolutionary.

While children in the preoperational stage have acquired important new skills, it is probably their reliance on physical cues which most sets children in this stage apart from children in other stages.  At this age, children believe what they see at face value.  Piaget demonstrated this through a famous experiment where he had children observe two glasses with equal quantities of liquid in them.  He then had the children pour one glass into a tall, slender glass.  Children in the preoperational stage who conducted this activity stated that the tall glass now had more liquid because the level of liquid is higher than in the other glasses.  This belief in things as they seem also leads children in the preoperational stage to be disposed to believe in magic.  How does an ice cube turn to a puddle of water?  How does a fire start?  How does a helium balloon float up into the air?  Because preoperational children focus on the appearance of things instead of on abstract processes, they are likely to interpret such events as magical.

Because children in the preoperational stage think concretely and interpret things in light of their own experiences, they often give human characteristics to animals and inanimate objects.  This practice leads them to interpret the sky as "angry" when it thunders or "sad" when it rains.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children are actively involved in the learning process.  His sociocultural theory of learning stresses the role of language, social interaction, and society in the learning process.  As individuals think about objects and actions in the environment and seek to solve problems, they use self-directed speech to better construct this new knowledge..  Adults and more able peers assist learning  through scaffolding.  While Piaget stressed learning as a solitary process, Vygotsky believed that much of learning occurs through interactions with others.  These interactions include subtle guidance and direct assistance.

Vygotsky offered guidance to teachers regarding when and how to scaffold.  He stated that the most learning occurs when children are presented with problems within their zone of proximal development.  These are problems just a little too difficult for the children to solve on their own but which they are capable of solving with subtle guidance.

Maslow's hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security.

There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological Needs
   These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological